In Memory of Jürgen Habermas

The secularized liberal state rests on presuppositions it cannot itself produce or guarantee.
— Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde.
In memory of Jürgen Habermas.
Costantino Esposito

Costantino Esposito - In memory of Jürgen Habermas

Jürgen Habermas, the great German philosopher and sociologist who died on March 14 atthe age of 96, devoted his long intellectual career to a single animating question: What are the reasons that hold human social life together? He pursued that question in twodirections at once—mapping the structures of rationalization that underlie modern legal, political, economic, and cultural institutions, and testing whether the model of rationalitythose institutions have adopted can actually bear the weight placed on it.

That lifelong passion for foundations never let him rest easy with the merely proceduralsolutions offered in liberal democracies. Technical or economic rationality—instrumentalreason aimed at specific, relative ends—could not justify those democracies on its own. Ithad to be integrated with what Habermas called social rationality: the kind that isaccountable to moral judgments and to the general ends that drive human action. As he argued in Knowledge and Human Interests (1968), the technical-procedural and the practical-moral are inseparable, and both must be oriented toward emancipation—liberation from individual neuroses through psychoanalysis and from ideologicalconditioning through that critical theory of society he shared, in his own way, with the Frankfurt School.

The grounds of social life, after all, can function as universal rules only insofar as theyemerge from the lives and practices of concrete, historical persons. And those persons do not constitute the public sphere merely through instrumental or strategic action—the kindoriented toward success and effectiveness, where subjects are ultimately reduced to the power they exercise and, above all, the power exercised over them. They constitute it aboveall through a different mode of engagement, to which Habermas dedicated his landmark Theory of Communicative Action (1981). This form of action does not aim at competitionwith others but at linguistic understanding among them—because human rationality itselfdemands the recognition of meaning and requires moral justification for the lifeworld and for every intersubjective relationship.

Habermas situated this democratic-constitutional dynamic within the broader passagefrom the modern to the postmodern world—from the Enlightenment's critique of metaphysical systems and religious authority to the irreversible fragmentation of unifiedknowledge and unified life that marks secularized societies. But post-metaphysicalthought, for him, could never mean abandoning philosophical rationality. It meantrevitalizing it as communicative reason: the shared capacity through which differentpeople can come to understand one another, in both senses of that phrase—grasping eachother's meaning and reaching genuine agreement.

Something similar applies to the role of religion in public discourse—which Habermas regarded as the most emblematic case of possible integration, or translation, betweenprocedural knowledge and justifications of meaning and truth. This theme emerged clearlyin his famous 2004 dialogue with then-Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, centered on the question: Does liberal democracy need religious premises? Both thinkers drew on a thesisby German jurist Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde: the secularized liberal state rests on presuppositions it cannot itself produce or guarantee. Hence the necessity—acknowledgedby both secular and religious thought—of drawing on pre- or extra-state sources of meaning, including religion, to sustain concepts like freedom, conscience, human rights, and democracy.

This is where Habermas located the passage from secularized to post-secular societies—a passage that calls for a new reading of the role of religious voices within the liberal state. Not as a concession of tolerance, but as a response to a need within human reason itself.

In a 2005 essay on Religion in the Public Sphere, Habermas argued that religiousframeworks, precisely because of their particular power to articulate moral intuitions, help draw public debate toward that creation of meaning that enriches democracy and civil life. Without undermining the presumption of secularity that governs the exercise of public office in liberal states, Habermas called on politics to embrace a broader and more flexiblemodel of citizenship. In this model, religious citizens must understand and come to termswith the fact that we live in a society shaped by secularization—one in which religiousaffiliation is not the foundation of civil belonging. But secularists, for their part, must understand and come to terms with the fact that religious convictions continue to endureand carry weight in a post-secular world.

The critical point, however, goes deeper. The difference and dissent among competingconceptions must have a cognitive dimension. It cannot be resolved through conflict or even through mere non-belligerence—it requires what Habermas called an epistemic shift in mindset, a different conception of social and political space. For secularists to recognizethat they inhabit a post-secular society, oriented even epistemically toward the survival of religious communities, no less demanding a change of mindset than the adaptationreligious consciousness has had to make in facing an ever-more-secularized environment. More precisely, it requires an appeal to an epistemic attitude arising from a self-criticalassessment of the limits of secular reason.

That is a genuine novelty: moving from the Enlightenment's critique of religion to the point of treating religious experience as a space where reason can exercise a critique of itsown limits and powers.

There is, I think, a striking and singular correspondence here with what the other greatGerman—Ratzinger himself—had said in describing Christianity as a peculiar form of Enlightenment: a critique of myths and ideological absolutes, animated by a profoundesteem for the logos.

Habermas would continue to reflect right up to his final works—such as the monumentalAlso a History of Philosophy (2019) —on the constellation between faith and knowledge, an interplay marked by continuity, ruptures, and tensions from the origins of Western culture, as a key to understanding the present.

In a time like ours—confronted on one side with highly fragmented, even nihilisticconceptions of the public sphere that can no longer stand on their own, and on the otherwith the temptation to brandish Christian values as a reaction against relativist modernity—it matters more than ever to recall the critical work that philosophy and religion can do together in the public square. Habermas, precisely by insisting on that work to the end, hasgiven all of us a gift.

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