Heart and Conscience

Silhouette of an adult holding an umbrella over a child beneath a dark, dramatic evening sky.

Silhouettes of an Adult and Child Under an Umbrella at Sunset

The Church does not control the human heart — she awakens it. Because the heart is made for an answer beyond all proportion to anything the world can give, it can never be commanded into the truth, only stirred to recognize it.
— Fr. Michiel Peeters, Heart and Conscience (Pavia, 2026)
Michiel Peeters ENGLISH - Heart and Conscience
Michiel Peeters ITALIANO - Cuore e Coscienza
Michiel Peeters ESPAÑOL - Corazón y Conciencia
Michiel Peeters FRANÇAIS - Cœur et conscience

Michiel Peeters - Augustine, Newman, and Giussani agree: the heart cannot be commanded into truth, only awakened.

The Foundations of Human Action in Augustine, Newman, and Giussani

A lecture by Fr. Michiel Peeters · Pavia, Sala dell’Annunciata · June 5, 2026

The occasion for this gathering is simple: in two weeks Pope Leo XIV — the first Augustinian pope in history — will visit our city. And it was this same Pope who, as his first major act last year, proclaimed St. John Henry Newman a Doctor of the Church and, in those same days, co-patron of the Church’s educational mission alongside St. Thomas Aquinas. On April 25 this year, speaking to teachers of religion, Pope Leo set the two Doctors side by side as masters. He began with Augustine’s famous line: “You have made us for yourself, [O God,] and our hearts are restless until they rest in you.” He went on to describe that human heart as the place of “the great questions of life, [of] our relationship with God, with creation, and with others” — the “thirst for the infinite [that is] inherent in every person.”

That thirst, once awakened, nurtured, and filled by a presence, can even “become energy to promote peace, to renew society, and to bridge its contradictions.” Then the Pope reached for Newman’s motto to name the educational dynamic: Cor ad cor loquitur — only the heart speaks to the heart. I’ll return to this address at the end. For now I want only to note that Pope Leo reads the “heart” in Newman as Augustine’s cor nostrum. To these two I add Luigi Giussani, who across the last century explored the heart precisely within the Church’s educational mission, and whose “pedagogical and theological genius” the Church has likewise recognized. Giussani called Newman one of “our most sensitive partners.” And his successor, Fr. Julián Carrón, returned again and again to Augustine — above all to the line I just quoted.

After Fr. Antonio’s fascinating account of “heart and conscience” in Augustine, let’s turn now to Newman, comparing him here and there with Giussani. Newman, born in 1801, surely felt from his earliest youth that heart Augustine speaks of. In secondary school he met a Calvinist teacher for whom the Christian faith was real — capable of transforming a life — and the young Newman’s interest was kindled at once.

He later recalled finding peace in those years “in the thought of two and only two absolute beings, luminously evident in themselves: myself and my Creator.” But that adolescent peace was no “solution” to the problem of living, as if the answer were meant to soften the question or explain it away. Just the opposite: the encounter with Christian dogma activated and stirred his desire for truth — a desire that would accompany him the rest of his life. Recall that when Newman died at nearly ninety, he had these words carved on his tomb as the summary of his life: Ex umbris et imaginibus in veritatem — “from shadows and images into truth.” So it’s a mistake to treat Newman’s “conversion” as a single moment — his formal entry into the Catholic Church in 1845, say. Giussani put it exactly: for Newman, conversion “is nothing other than the ever deeper and more authentic discovery of what one already adhered to.” Newman himself insists that the Christian’s “conversion” is a long process, made of many “opportunities seized,” and on this earth never complete. A few months after meeting the Calvinist teacher, Newman entered the prestigious University of Oxford.

After his bachelor’s degree he became a Fellow of Oriel College, serving as tutor and chaplain. There he met the theologian Edward Pusey and began to study the Church Fathers. Little by little he was captivated by the “Catholic” character of Christianity — the objectivity of the sacraments and of the Church, exactly what Evangelicalism lacked. Newman was ordained an Anglican priest and then named vicar of St. Mary’s, the university church of Oxford. There, on January 22, 1832, he preached a sermon introducing the idea of “personal influence.” Truth, he insists, cannot be defended by debate, nor spread through strategies, committees, plans, and top-down programs; it spreads through the change it works in the person it has seized — a change those around him can see. Christianity, like every living idea, moves from person to person, by the dynamic of attraction.

Newman would seal this conviction in his motto, Cor ad cor loquitur: only a heart — warm, awakened, seized — can communicate anything, and only to someone whose own heart is awake. With “personal influence” Newman anticipates the very idea of a “movement” in the Church. So much so that, with Pusey and others, he helped launch what would be called the Oxford Movement — an attempt to revive Anglicanism by renewing its doctrine and life through a return to the Church of the Fathers and a deeper ecclesial awareness. The Anglican Church was to be, consciously, “the Catholic Church as it exists in England.”

Throughout his life, Newman’s desire for truth was roused and stirred by the circumstances the Mystery led him to live, one after another. It was precisely his study of the Fathers — together with certain decisions by the Anglican leadership that resisted any “Catholic” reading — that brought Newman to see that Christian dogma had been better preserved and developed in communion with the Bishop of Rome than in the communities cut off from him.

This dawning awareness became, of course, a grave crisis. University life was his life. The Oxford Movement was his life’s work. Newman was famous and beloved; his sermons filled churches, his articles were read and argued over everywhere — while the Catholic Church in England was, by every measure, a marginal affair. But Newman was too thirsty for truth to ignore what he was finding, and his conscience told him to follow what he found. He resigned as vicar of the university church and withdrew to a small village, Littlemore, with a few friends — just as Augustine, after the moment of tolle lege (pictured on the flyer for this evening), resigned his chair of rhetoric and withdrew to Cassiciacum (Cassago Brianza).

Two years after leaving St. Mary’s, on October 3, 1845, Newman also resigned his Fellowship at Oriel. A few days later, when the Catholic missionary Dominic Barberi visited Littlemore, Newman was received into the Catholic Church. The rite took place in the little chapel beside his house — a converted barn. With that, the scholar formally broke with the Anglican Church, staked his reputation in England, and lost many friends.

It was in those years, before his formal entry into Catholicism, that Newman wrote his Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine. In it he sets out his discovery that, just as a man must often change in order to remain himself, so dogma must develop over time. Its appearance may shift considerably, provided the “type” stays the same — much as a grown man barely resembles the child he once was.

To remain himself, he had to grow and change. Had he not changed, he would already be dead. It is by passing through history, through ever-new circumstances, that the depth and the potential of a true idea come more and more to light. This Newmanian insight — fundamental for Catholic theology — recalls a line of Giussani’s: “Whoever has Christ has everything; but he does not yet know what this ‘everything’ is; he must pass through all the circumstances of life to discover what it is he has encountered.” I find it telling that Pope Francis, in his address to CL on October 15, 2022, applied Newman’s dynamic to charisms: “Charisms grow as the truths of dogma grow … they grow to fullness.”

A year after entering the Catholic Church, Newman traveled to Rome, on his bishop’s advice, to prepare for the priesthood. He was welcomed with full honors as the most famous living Protestant convert. Yet Newman was put off by the rigid scholastic theology and the clericalism he found there. It only deepened his conviction that his vocation lay in education — in helping the baptized become conscious, free Christians, so as to make the Church present in new settings as something attractive. He pursued this as pastor, preacher, and writer, and from 1851 as founder and first rector of the Catholic University of Dublin, a post he held until 1858. A year later, the Bishop of Birmingham asked Newman to edit the Rambler, a magazine run by some Oxford converts. Newman agreed, and wrote an article titled “On Consulting the Faithful in Matters of Doctrine.”

There he explained that the truths of the faith live in the Church as a whole. Historically it has happened — with Arianism — that the majority of bishops professed a heretical doctrine while the people stayed orthodox. And so, Newman said, to grasp Catholic truth, pastors must listen to and weigh what is alive in the whole Christian people. The same conviction, by the way, runs through the Rule of St. Benedict, which tells the abbot to listen even to the youngest monk — and, for anyone who knows it, through the method of School of Community.

That essay, though, proved “an act of political suicide,” in John Coulson’s words, “after which his ecclesiastical career never fully recovered.” Envious men found in the article a pretext to denounce Newman to the Holy See. (As an aside: I find it astonishing that the tiny English Catholic Church of the day held people lying in wait for a possible theological slip from a giant like Newman, just so they could “report” him to Rome. And yet these sad episodes were essential to Newman’s road — to his holiness, and to the discoveries we still draw on today.)

The point is that even Newman’s entry into Catholicism did not end his search for truth; it opened a new and still more ardent phase of it. As I said, it is precisely in the presence of the answer that the question begins to burn — as it did for the disciples on the road to Emmaus. But some took that “burning” for a problem: a threat to their quiet governance, to a unity mistaken for uniformity, to the comfort of standing at the center of attention or power. In any case, Newman’s essay was sent to Rome in a rough Latin translation, with a formal charge of heresy from the Bishop of Newport. The Pope voiced his displeasure and personal sorrow at what Newman had claimed. In a single stroke, his reputation was destroyed. From then on Rome regarded him as “the most dangerous man in England,” in the words of one monsignor at the papal court. Newman asked for a list of the disputed passages, a copy of the Latin translation, and a list of the dogmatic propositions he was said to have violated; he undertook to profess those propositions, to argue in strict accord with them, and to show that they were entirely consistent with his English text. Propaganda Fide supplied the list, but the cardinal in London never forwarded it to Newman — why, no one knows. The episode opened a long silence.

Newman published nothing more until his Apologia pro vita sua, five years later. From his formal conversion onward, Newman never doubted that the Catholic Church was the Church of Christ; he longed to serve her with his whole heart. But for him such obedience did not mean surrendering something true he had discovered. He could keep silent, even for years — but he would not renounce something he was certain of. Like Giussani, Newman was convinced that the Church is the community that wants the truth, and that therefore, sooner or later, she will recognize all the truth God lets man discover. At the end of his life he wrote: “Time has been my best friend and supporter; and to the future I commit myself, with love and much resignation, for its judgment.” That the man once called “the most dangerous man in England” is now a Doctor of the Church has more than proven him right.

Newman began publishing again in 1864. That year the Anglican writer Charles Kingsley accused him of being a weathervane, given how often his convictions had shifted over time. The Apologia pro vita sua is a deeply personal account of Newman’s road — and here too the comparison with Augustine imposes itself, who in his Confessions made his own journey public. The Apologia restored Newman’s reputation in England and in time became a world classic of religious autobiography.

In these years, spent partly in the shadows, Newman worked on another masterpiece: the Grammar of Assent, an epistemological treatise probing the phenomenon of “moral certainty.” How, in a life that lends itself neither to logical deduction nor to mathematical calculation, does one arrive at sure knowledge of something or someone? In real experience, Newman explains, “proof is the limit of converging probabilities.” The Catechism of the Catholic Church takes from this work the saying, “Ten thousand difficulties do not make one doubt.”

In 1875, an old man now, Newman returned to the relationship between Church authority and the individual believer. In 1870 the Church had proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility. A few years later William Gladstone, the former British prime minister, charged that Catholics could no longer be loyal subjects of England: their required obedience to the Pope would make them servants of a foreign power, incompatible with English freedom.

Newman answered with an essay, the “Letter to the Duke of Norfolk,” showing how, in Catholic doctrine, personal conscience always finally takes precedence over any external authority — even ecclesiastical authority. He said it in an aphorism that became famous: “Certainly, if I am obliged to bring religion into after-dinner toasts (which indeed does not seem quite the thing), I shall drink — to the Pope, if you please — still, to Conscience first, and to the Pope afterwards.” The Catechism, restating that “a human being must always obey the certain judgment of his own conscience,” quotes Newman: “Conscience is the first of all the vicars of Christ.” Let me venture, already, the hypothesis that what Newman says about conscience — moral conscience — including what he says about its relationship to external authority, holds also for the human “heart” as such.

But let’s see what Newman says about moral conscience. He calls it a “constitutive element of the mind,” exactly like “our perception of other ideas, our power of reasoning, our sense of Order and Beauty, and our other intellectual endowments.” Moral conscience is a “principle [that cannot] be resolved into any combination of natural principles more elementary than itself.” It is “planted within us before we have had any education; though such education and experience are necessary for its strength, growth, and due formation.”

Conscience is hardly a “creation of man”; it is “the Voice of God in the nature and heart of man.” It is the “internal witness … of the existence … of God,” since we find it within us and did not give it to ourselves. Moral conscience belongs “to God, and not to man, as an angel walking on the earth would be no citizen of it.” It is “the messenger of Him who, both in nature and in grace, speaks to us behind a veil, and teaches and rules us by His representatives.” In short: “Conscience is the aboriginal Vicar of Christ, a prophet in its informations, a monarch in its peremptoriness, a priest in its blessings and anathemas; and even though the eternal priesthood throughout the Church could cease to be, in conscience the sacerdotal principle would remain and would have a sway.”

Here we touch the first of two structural anchors: what Giussani names the irreducibility of The I. Newman’s claim that conscience cannot be “resolved into any combination of natural principles more elementary than itself” is no mere epistemological footnote — it names something structural about the person. The I is not the sum of its conditions. There is in each of us something no education manufactures and no authority installs, a voice “planted within us before we have had any education,” given before we could give ourselves anything at all. To reduce The I to its antecedents is to lose precisely what makes a person a person — and, as we’ll see, it is exactly this irreducibility that no power, not even the highest in the Church, is permitted to override.

Newman stresses that, on Catholic teaching, we have a “duty to obey conscience in all things.” “He who acts against his conscience loses his soul.” “Of course, if a man is culpable in being in error, which he might have escaped, had he been more in earnest, for that error he is answerable to God; but still he must act according to that error, while he is in it, because he in full sincerity thinks the error to be truth” — and perceived truth must always be followed. Not even the Church’s supreme authority can override the conscience of the individual, because “the Pope, who comes [from] Revelation, has no jurisdiction over Nature.”

To be sure, Newman adds, for conscience to have “the right of opposing the supreme … authority of the Pope,” it “must be … real”: if it is to be obeyed as a sacred and sovereign teacher, “its dictates [must prevail] against the voice of the Pope only as the conclusion of serious thought, prayer, and all available means of arriving at a right judgment on the matter in question. … Unless a man is able to say to himself, as in the Presence of God, that he must not, and dare not, act upon the Papal injunction, he is bound to obey it, and would commit a great sin in disobeying it.” The Doctor of the Church insists that the Church has not only never spoken against the authority of conscience, but is founded on that very divine authority which is the voice of conscience. He writes: “Were the Pope to speak against Conscience in the true sense of the word, he would commit a suicidal act. He would be cutting the ground from under his feet. His mission is to proclaim … to protect and strengthen that light which enlightens every man that comes into the world.” Revelation, for nature, is “the complement, the confirmation, the end, the embodiment, and the interpretation” — certainly not its replacement or its control.

Newman wrote on moral conscience because the 1870 dogma concerned papal infallibility in faith and morals — and perhaps, too, because in nineteenth-century philosophy such a conscience was a widely accepted human phenomenon. As I said, it seems to me that what Newman affirms about moral conscience — including its relationship to external authority — holds, and all the more, for the human “heart” as such. Giussani describes the human heart, in line with Augustine and Newman, as that complex of original evidences and needs by which nature throws man “into the encounter with everything that exists.”

When awake, the heart issues “judgments of Correspondence” on every proposal man runs into, pressing him to go actively in search of such correspondences. Moral conscience is part of this heart. It judges the subject’s actions, weighing their correspondence to the moral law — to the “aesthetics of creation,” as Giussani defined morality — and urging him to act according to that aesthetics. But moral conscience can render such judgments only on the basis of what the heart itself “supplies.” To know “what to do” or “not do,” one must first recognize what is beautiful or ugly, true or false, what liberates or suffocates; one must be driven toward truth and happiness — and that drive is the ground and the work of the heart as such. To render “absolute” moral judgments — judgments capable of defying any external authority — moral conscience has to start from equally “absolute” judgments about the correspondences that precede action: of truth, of happiness, of liberation, of love.

So, in my view, what Newman affirms about moral conscience can — and perhaps must — be said of the human heart as such. In particular: that it is set in each of us, objectively, as a voice and a “proof of God’s existence” (because that ineradicable search for truth and fulfillment is not something we hand ourselves); that we are responsible for educating it and using it well; that, in every case, it must be followed, since a person who stopped listening to his own heart could no longer recognize what is true; that the Church, therefore, entrusts herself to the human heart; that her task is to awaken and educate it; and that she neither controls it nor wishes to.

Giussani lays this out clearly in The Structure of Experience, where he shows that Christian experience is made of three factors: the encounter with a human reality; the right perception of that encounter’s meaning; and the free verification, over time, of that intuition. The human reality one meets (the first factor) carries a definite authority — the authority of the Church. But that human reality, authority and all, has to be verified with the heart. Authority does not dictate to the heart what judgment it must render; on the contrary, together with the encountered human reality it is part of, it submits to the judgment of the human heart. Authority, then, is “within” experience, not “above” it.

In Giussani’s words in Why the Church: the Church “bets on man, hypothesizing that the message of which she is the instrument, once sifted [by the heart], will reveal a prodigious presence. The answer the message contains to the needs of the human heart will be, unpredictably, beyond all comparison greater and truer than the outcome of any other hypothesis.” More simply, it’s what Giussani used to tell his high-school students: “You must listen to me carefully; but if you find somewhere else something better than what I’m telling you, you must — you are obliged — to go there. In fact, you must call me too, because I want to go there as well!”

Notice what Giussani is wagering on, and it is the second structural anchor: the structural disproportion built into the human being. The answer, when it comes, is “beyond all comparison greater” than the question — and yet it is the question’s own fulfillment. The heart’s demand for truth, happiness, justice, and love is, by its very make, out of all proportion to anything the world can hand over. That disproportion is not a flaw to be managed down; it is the very sign that the heart is made for An Event, for A Presence that exceeds every human measure. This is why authority can only stand “within” experience and never “above” it: no institution, however legitimate, can fill a structural disproportion by decree. It can only point — and wait for the heart to recognize.

Why is this so? Because there is in man an “aboriginal Vicar of Christ” over whom not even the Pope has jurisdiction? Because Christ does not want, in any way, to “overpower” man, but to answer what man “is.” If the fulfillment He comes to bring — to be — were to overpower us, to cancel something of “us,” it would not be our salvation, our happiness. As Augustine said: “Qui fecit te sine te, non te iustificat sine te” — He who made you without you does not will to save you, to make you happy, without you, without your humanity, your freedom, your heart. Second, Christ wants to be chosen, to be preferred, because He is the best thing for us — not because He is the most powerful, not because He buys us, blackmails us, or overpowers us.

Third, only if Christ is an answer to “us,” with everything we are, can we be seized by Him deeply enough to begin to shine with His light and to become a presence in our surroundings. All of this matters, because there are Catholics who — out of laziness, or to “hold on to” people — would say that ecclesial authority outranks personal conscience or the heart as such. The reasoning runs, terribly, like this: until you know Christ in His Church, heart and conscience hold; but once you accept that Christ is God, you can and must simply obey what Church authority tells you. It is usually a fascination with power, not with truth, that “reasons” this way. God as power.

But Christ did not choose to come and draw us as a king, though He could have. Meanwhile, great Catholics like Newman and Giussani insist that even true things — especially true things — must always be discovered personally and freely. A true thing you do not discover personally and freely, in your own experience, never becomes yours; it never becomes flesh of your flesh; and so it cannot shine out of you before everyone. This way even Christianity — and this is terrible — can be lived as an ideology, the “perfect” ideology, because it comes from God. But you can tell it has become an ideology, because the people who hold it this way do not shine: their hearts do not burn, and they draw no one by what Newman calls “personal influence.”

Read this way, Augustine, Newman, and Giussani converge on a single claim. Because The I is irreducible, it cannot be commanded into the truth; because the heart is structurally disproportionate to every finite answer, it can only be awakened, never coerced into rest. The Church’s authority, far from competing with this, exists to serve it. That is exactly the note Pope Leo strikes in the recommendations he closed with on April 25 — recommendations, he said, “close to his heart.”

To conclude, then, I’d like to quote a few of Pope Leo XIV’s pedagogical recommendations, which on April 25 he called dear to his heart. They strike me as a beautiful example of how the Church’s highest authority has no interest in obscuring, silencing, bypassing, or controlling the heart. On the contrary, the Pope fulfills the mission Newman describes — “to proclaim …, to protect and strengthen that light which enlightens every man that comes into the world.”

Here is the Pope on April 25. Newman’s motto, cor ad cor loquitur, commits educators “to help young people recognize a voice that is in fact already resounding within them — not to bury it, nor to confuse it with the noise that surrounds them. In an age when we live constantly besieged by stimuli of every kind, silencing that voice is all too easy. To teach them to hear it, or to find it again, is therefore one of the greatest gifts we can give the new generations.

Man cannot live without truth and authentic meaning; and young people, even when they seem apathetic or unfeeling behind a façade of apparent indifference, often in fact conceal the restlessness and the suffering of those who ‘feel too much,’ too intensely, without managing to name what they are going through. To educate, then, means forming people to listen to the heart, and thereby to inner freedom and the capacity for critical thought — in a dynamic where faith and reason neither ignore nor oppose one another, but are traveling companions in the humble, sincere search for truth. For this reason, education requires the patience to sow without demanding immediate results, respecting the pace of a person’s growth.

And above all — Newman teaches — it requires love. Dear friends,” the Pope went on, “truth passes through people, and for your students those people include you — called to become credible teachers because you are in love with God and with them; to hand on values without showmanship or moralizing; to offer glances that lift others up; and to be witnesses of that humble, near-at-hand consistency that makes even the most demanding content dear and desirable.

Your students do not need ready-made answers, but closeness and honesty from adults who stand beside them with authority and responsibility as they face life’s great questions. They will remember the eyes and the words of those who knew how to recognize in them a unique gift, who took them seriously, who were not afraid to walk a stretch of road with them — showing themselves, in turn, men and women who seek, think, live, and believe.”

Michiel Peeters

Michiel Peeters, a Dutch Catholic priest and Tilburg University chaplain, is associated with Communion and Liberation. He engages students in faith discussions, addresses modern objections to religion, and bridges contemporary culture with Catholic spirituality. Peeters contributes to translating movement literature and organizing events, becoming an influential voice in Dutch religious discourse.

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