The Paradox of Freedom

Black-and-white photograph of the reclining Achilles statue at Achilleion Palace, Corfu, embodying Homeric force and human vulnerability.

Dying Achilles Statue – Black and White | Paradox of Force and Freedom

Weakness, which inevitably marks us all, is precisely the way each of us lives and experiences our own specific strength.
— Costantino Esposito
Costantino Esposito The Paradox of Freedom

Costantino Esposito - The Paradox of Freedom

Weakness, which inevitably marks us all, is precisely the way each of us lives and experiences our own specific strength. Between human illusions and existential discoveries, a journey from Homer to the present day.

This is what is so terrifying about strength: it appears to us as something we cannot resist, the law of an inescapable necessity. And what is unsettling is that it does not belong solely to the nature that dominates us from the outside, or to the rule of a political regime, but is also a constitutive factor of our very nature. Herein also lies the drama of force: it inevitably imposes itself in the face of—and often against—human freedom. And this holds true even for those who might consider our freedom an illusion, yet cannot help but feel it or seek it within themselves. And if we then consider that this freedom, too, is in its own way a “force” that springs from within, the picture becomes incredibly complicated—yet, at its core, it also comes full circle: what else would our life be if not a “force field” in search of its own possible—or impossible—equilibrium? And what happens when that equilibrium is disrupted—and is constantly being disrupted?

This ambiguity of force—its being something that necessarily determines us, even if we do not want it to, and at the same time something we go along with because it sets us free—is never an either/or choice or a Manichean alternative, as both determinists and moralists would have it, but a tension that permanently inhabits our lives, one that profoundly shapes our way of being in the world.

The problem arises when we discover—and we discover it all too soon through our own experience—that there are forces we cannot escape, and this impossibility of escape accompanies the feeling of our existence like a muffled basso continuo, determining the “quality” and “tone” of our self-awareness. This is an existential discovery that concerns us personally, but one that can lead to the metaphysical suspicion that the entire human life depends on factors that humans illusorily believe they can dominate, yet by which they are in reality dominated from top to bottom.

Simone Weil demonstrates this with poignant clarity in her essay “The Iliad: A Poem of Force,” written between 1939 and 1941. The great Homeric poem expresses, with an intensity of vision that remains unmatched, a definitive truth: that “force turns anyone who is subject to it into a thing […], in the most literal sense of the word, because it transforms them into a corpse.” This effect of petrification that force produces on a person who is subject to it—that is, on all people, not only those defeated in battle but also the victors—does not necessarily coincide with physical death, because it also affects those who continue to live, but no longer as “living flesh,” rather as a dead thing.

This dominion of force “extends as far as that of nature”: as in the case of the maternal love nurtured by Niobe, who, exhausted after the death of her twelve sons—left unburied by the will of the gods—“thought of eating when she was weary of tears,” because she had been rendered “incapable even of feeling her own misery,” subject to a command “just as cold [...] and harsh as if it were exerted by inert matter.” That same force “crushes just as mercilessly” those who fall under its yoke as it “mercilessly intoxicates those who possess it or believe they possess it.” Not only Hector, but also Achilles; not only Achilles, but also Priam; not only the Trojans but also the Achaeans: “by virtue of being blind, fate establishes a sort of justice, blind itself,” and those who kill will in turn be killed with equal measure. Her name is Nemesis. She is the one for whom “executioners and victims are equally innocent,” like brothers in the same misery.

For the protagonists of the Iliad, being aware of death as the sole destiny—as the very “future” of life—means something quite different from the mere acceptance of life’s natural finitude: rather, it means living “subjugated to the yoke of war,” driven by a genuine “need for death”—a need for a terrible fulfillment, in which only destruction can bring liberation from the constant fear that petrifies the passage of life. Thus, though they are alive, these men belong to “a race different from that of the living,” having fallen, as they have, to the level of inert matter, pure passivity driven by the impetus of blind forces.

And yet—and here Weil’s gaze becomes vibrant in its delicacy—in the Iliad there resounds, almost imperceptibly, a “note” of pure and poignant regret for what force will lead to destruction. The note of love “of the son for his parents and of the father and mother for their son,” or that of conjugal love; the note of friendship among comrades in arms and—“an even greater miracle”—that of the friendship that can bind even mortal enemies together. This “bitterness that springs from tenderness,” this extreme regret for what is lost but could have been lived, is what makes one feel the rare “moments of grace” in the poem, and even more so in the fate of force. Everything that “escapes the dominion of force” in the soul and in human relationships is “loved, but loved painfully, because of that ever-present danger of destruction.” This supreme “Greek genius,” which we first encounter in the Iliad, will be inherited, according to Weil, only by Attic tragedy (especially Aeschylus and Sophocles) and will find its ultimate expression in the Gospel itself. In particular, during his Passion, Christ “trembles before suffering and death”; he feels separated from humanity and even abandoned by God, thereby revealing the most acute understanding and expression of the dominion of force—that is, of the common fate of human misery. To look this fate in the face, without illusions or justifications, means “to suffer force” by allowing it to strike “down to the soul.” And while grace—purely human in Homer’s poem, even divine in the Gospels—can prevent one from being corrupted and destroyed by the “blow” of force, “it cannot, however, prevent the wound.”

It is this wound that enables a man “reified” by force to become a living human being once more, a being of flesh. Free again, or perhaps free for the first time. Here the true stakes become clear in the unstoppable dominion of force—more radical than the necessary laws of physical and biological nature, and yet, as if within them, even more profound than the ideological conflicts surrounding force as the domain of political power. At stake is the possibility that that touch of tenderness and love—that extreme, dramatic sharing of human misery—might ultimately arise and act as a true “force” in its own right.

This is clearly not a matter of “masking” the invincibility of force—as we have outlined it so far—with edifying narratives, or of taming and making more bearable the tragic outcomes it brings about in human existence, which is, as such, always bent under its yoke. Rather, it is a matter of traversing its dominion, sensing—even more than the inescapable tragedy arising from the fate of death—the drama it provokes when it intersects and intertwines with that other force: the irreducible desire of the human soul—the desire to exist and to fulfill oneself, that is, to be happy.

This desire has often been interpreted as a mere biological force, a physiological impulse that falls within the realm of the “psychic,” yet one that is always on the verge of turning into a pathological experience. As if it were the individual manifestation, within the conscious self, of an unconscious power: what Freud, drawing on Georg Groddeck, had termed the impersonal, necessary “Id.” We still find ourselves in the full grip of the dark, blind force of nature, which now, however, evolves almost seamlessly into “culture” and “history.” Yet it remains the relentless force we know, perhaps merely managed and processed within bourgeois salons. Or, in only an apparent contrast, it unfolds as a revolutionary and/or reactionary force in the history of classes and states, of capital and labor power, of markets and finance.

All of these are forms—despite their radical differences—of the great force—both natural and political—that we delude ourselves into thinking we can control and manage on our own, whether as individuals or in association, but which in the end inevitably plays us all. The force-necessity whose canon was established with geometric rigor once and for all by Spinozist rationalism, which advances the “scientific” claim to finally resolve the most burning problem of the human condition—that of the freedom of the self—simply by dissolving it into the inevitable acceptance of the necessity of force. The truly fulfilled—that is, happy—person is one who, through intellectual exercise, has learned to free themselves from compulsion, even from the extreme form represented by death, and to no longer fear it, because they intuit that even destruction “divinely” falls within the homeostasis of man’s natural forces.

Here is the verdict of insurmountable force: the desire of the self that becomes the simple “conatus” (Spinoza again) through which the human being tends to preserve its vital force, as a survival instinct. But perhaps not everything is “held together” by this force, and homeostasis is ultimately always at risk. It is that happy instability in which the system of tendencies and counter-tendencies leaves room for an asymmetry with respect to the cycle of actions and reactions.

This asymmetry has made itself known through its own power in the Judeo-Christian experience of the self and the world. The decisive—and in this case truly revolutionary—principle is that all the forces of the universe encounter a point of incredible resistance at the heart of the human being, and in his decision—seemingly of no consequence in relation to the cosmic and political order—to “will” the good or to reject it; that is, to open himself or, respectively, to close himself off to grace. And the latter is a strange force, because although it is radically “other” than human decisions or merits, it calls—and I would almost say awaits—the assent of mortals. It is distinct from our freedom, yet it can be given and manifested only to a free being. Its order is no longer that of mere imposition from above, but of a call from the heart itself. This is what Paul of Tarsus (Letter to the Romans) identified in the conflict between the Law—closely bound to the slavery of sin—and the Spirit of God, who reveals to us that we are no longer slaves but “children.” This means we are capable of welcoming another force that acts in a personal—and responsible—way within our own hearts.

This is clearly seen in Augustine’s discovery of the decisive and, until then, previously unrecognized role of the human will with regard to evil. Significantly, in contrast to the Manichaean view—for whom evil is a metaphysical “force” opposed to good on a cosmic level, and against which the individual can do nothing nor is held accountable for anything—Augustine insists on attributing the responsibility for evil to the “perverse” use of the human will, in which also lies the possibility of changing course and “converting” the will’s gaze toward being and the good.

From that moment on, the true center of power shifts its location, taking root in the human heart. And not because the heart is capable of halting or nullifying the forces that inexorably determine the course of nature and the events of history, but because it is capable of questioning their meaning. Indeed, because it discovers its need for meaning. This need is its true power. It is no cheap solution; indeed, ever since then we have been continually tempted—and at times compelled—to say that there is nothing we can do in the face of the fate that looms over us, even when we improperly call this mortal fate the “will of God.” But every time we think this, we reaffirm, through that very thought, a strength within us that does not yield. This strength of resistance always coincides with the intuition—often a simple suggestion, in some cases merely a fleeting suspicion born of the very fabric of experience—that we are children rather than slaves. The hallmark of sonship is a generation that does not predetermine existence, but rather gives it the vital space to unfold on its own terms.

In Paul’s Christian paradox—“when I am weak, then I am strong” (2 Corinthians)—not only does the Greek principle of the Iliad resonate, as Weil maintained, but one senses a new emphasis that would be too much for the Greek genius, and that is rightly too much, indeed far too much—due to its absolute gratuitousness, whose most fitting image remains that of a completely unpredictable encounter, such as that with a loved one or a friend who suddenly makes us see the balance of strength—give and take—with fresh eyes.

This is not a matter of a difference between doctrines or between different interpretations, but of a difference in experience. It is not a question of explaining better, but of noticing more carefully what can make our very weakness strong. Indeed, one might say that weakness, which inevitably marks us all, is precisely the way in which each person lives and experiences their own specific strength. And what if it were time to reconsider what the great Leibniz said about “vis”—the force or dynamic energy that acts from within each individual (monad), reflecting—in each person in their own specific way—the forces that sustain and move the entire universe? A point, however tiny, of thought and therefore of freedom—the most surprising force in the world.

Costantino Esposito is a full professor of the History of Philosophy at the University of Bari Aldo Moro. His article continues Il Foglio’s summer series dedicated to the concept of force. Each week, a different author will examine this concept from the perspective of a specific discipline. The other installments were published on July 7 (Michele Silenzi, “The Force That Holds Up the World”), July 14 (Luca Amendola, “Between Force and Matter”), July 21 (Luigi Marco Bassani, “The Measure of Us Europeans”), July 28 (Alberto Frigerio, “The Trouble with Modern Man”), and August 4 (Lorenzo Castellani, “Damn Reason of State”).

Costantino Esposito

Costantino Esposito is a leading Italian philosopher and historian of philosophy, best known for his scholarship on Heidegger, Kant, and Francisco Suárez, and for his work on contemporary nihilism and the relationship between faith and reason

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